Friday, September 6, 2019
Philosophy of Mind Essay Example for Free
Philosophy of Mind Essay Since centuries, our philosophers have been trying to unravel mysteries of our memory, thought processes, different emotions, will power and imaginations culminating into what is known as different intellectual and conscious part of our personality. Our mind, as our great literary figures have posited, is a stream of our consciousness and is a part of our brains inherent processes. Our mind is a place where our reasoning power gets the shape and takes the practical form. As also said in Indian Vedic philosophy, He who knows the receptacle (Ayatana) verily becomes the receptacle of his people. Mind is verily the receptacle (of all our knowledge). – (Chhandogya Upanishad, V-i-5.) Different studies by our philosophers have been compounded into various theories each delving into the depth of various aspects of our mind processes. Its earliest studies have been found in the works of Zarathushtra, Mahatma Budha, Plato, Aristotle, Adi Shankara and many more ancient Greek and Indian Philosophers. Many of the pre scientific philosophers based their theories on relationship between the mind and the soul, supernatural elements of faith, having a feeling of closeness with divinity or god, but on the other hand modern theorists based their theories on their research and scientific studies of the brain. These theories rely heavily on the fact that the mind is a phenomenon of the brain and is a tantamount of consciousness. The study of the relationship between the body and mind is the most central aspect to the philosophy of mind, despite of the fact that there are number of issues related to the nature of the mind which does not take into consideration its relationship to the physical body. The most crucial and complex differences of thoughts are arising among different theorists regarding the exact and most appropriate theory of mind. Though various theorists have developed their own different versions to make us understand our own functioning of mind yet as more and more theories are coming up, more and more it is getting difficult to come out with the best theory of all. As all theories are able to capture the intensity of readers to make us understand the core of our mind and thoughts, yet it is very challenging to understand â€Å"Which is the best?†Here I am trying to unravel the mystery to understand which theory-Dualism, mind-brain identity or functionalism is a correct theory to understand all about mind. Dualism is a most important school of thought that has tried to solve the most paradoxical and most important relationship of mind and body problems. It has tried to make several attempts to sure that mind and body in some way or the other detach from each other. Roots of Dualism dates far back to Plato, Aristotle and the Sankhya and Yoga schools of Hindu philosophy but in a most precise way it was understood by Rene Descartes only in the 17th century. His philosophical disposition is based on the fact that the mind is independent in itself and constitutes two different kinds of substances like â€Å"res extensa meaning extended things, physical things†and â€Å"res cogitans means thinking things†, (Descartes, Online Edition ). The thinking things are beyond the dimensions of time and space and are thus separate in itself whereas Property dualists thinks that there are several independent properties known to us. It is quite clear from his disposition that he is trying to explain the importance and concept of soul, giving religious discourse. But in this all, he has tried to explain that there is an interaction of mind in pineal gland, from where there is a control on bodily actions and receive sensory perceptions. But this approach of Dualism is not without criticism as its properties are more of dubious in nature. Their theory is based on religion and their ardent faith but no element of scientific fact is found in this. If we visualize and understands that if there is a soul in our physical body and the soul can have drastic effect then it is quite natural that it should be able to generate new energy to bring the bodies into moment.  It is argued that if the soul exists and it can affect the body then it must be able to create new energy to move the body, but this is sheer violation of the theory of the conservation principle. Owen Flanagan, in his The Science of the Mind says,†If the mind according to Descartes is not a physical system therefore it also could not have any energy to prove herself but in-order to increase this physical energy, the need of the hour is to get it transferred from other physical system but it is not possibl†e. (Owen Flanagan, pp. 21, Mind creators.com). To overcome the limitations of the Dualism, several philosophers and psychologists began to ignore the very concept and existence of mind itself and by doing so their expectations to touch the cord of mind began to flow towards the realistic parts of our lives. Therefore in the beginning the new generation of philosophers came up with what is known as Type Identity Theory.  They posters the view that though the structure of every person’s brain is similar yet in the brain of every person there are certain differences therefore it is not possible to find oneself in a position of same neurological state. Therefore this theory soon took the shape of Token Taken theory implying that if there are two people having different neuropsychological states, then what is it that brings them into the same mental state? And to this they answered that it is due to the function of those two states only that had created them same. This leads to functionalism theory, which says that, â€Å"Two different brain-state tokens would be tokens of the same type of mental state if the two brain states had the same causal relations to the input stimulus that the organism receives, to its various other mental states, and to its output behavior†. (Functionalism, online edition). In simple words, he said that there were supposed to be two thoughts, which are same, and all of the inputs, internal and external, lead to the same output. With this statement, psychologists tried to bring all the conditions of the mind set in equilibrium. This leads to the functionalism theory. Though there are several problems to this approach too yet we can very say that if this theory of functionalism is adopted, it will take us into next major breakthrough, but all is not well with Functionalism too as it failed to explain in clear terms the fact that even if there are conditions of different physical states which gives different material phenomenon, then there is no possibility of different physical structures to regain equality.  . While there is a great controversy to come at the concrete conclusion about which one is correct theory of mind,, but it is a matter of fact that functionalism is the most popular theory among scientists as well as philosophers of today. According to this theory, all the aspects of mental state like beliefs, pains, hopes, fears, etc. depends and are divided on the bases of their activity and are characterized by the jobs they do, or in other words according to the functions that they perform. Just like computers understands the main idea behind our thoughts process in the same way our brains captures our thought processes from our mind and induces us to act accordingly. WORKS CITED Anderson, David. â€Å"Introduction to Functionalism†Consortium on Mind/Brain Science Instruction. Internet. (2006) Available: http://www.mind.ilstu.edu/curriculum/functionalism_intro/functionalism_intro.php?modGUI=44compGUI=1403itemGUI=2447, March 5, 2008  Cofer, David. â€Å"Dualism†MindCreators.Com Internet. (2002) Available:  http://www.mindcreators.com/Dualism.htm, March 5, 2008 Cofer, David. â€Å"Functionalism†MindCreators.Com Internet. (2002) Available: http://www.mindcreators.com/Functionalism.htm, March 5, 2008 McAdoo, Oliver. â€Å"Critically discuss the idea that mental states are identical to physical states†arrod.co.uk Internet. Available: http://www.arrod.co.uk/essays/mind-brain-identity.php, March 5, 2008 Chance, Tom. â€Å"Mind-brain identity theory†Internet. Available: http://tom.acrewoods.net/research/philosophy/mind/identitytheory, March 5, 2008 Swamy  Sivananda, â€Å"Mind Its Mysteries Control†, The Divine Life Trust Society, 1994, World Wide Web Edition, 1998, A Divine Life Society Publication, Internet Available, http://www.dlshq.org/download/mind.htm Flanagan, Owen (1991). The Science of the Mind, 2nd edition. MIT Press. pp. 21.
Thursday, September 5, 2019
advantages and disadvantages of vaccinations
advantages and disadvantages of vaccinations Introduction Vaccination or immunization is a means of providing specific protection against many common and damaging pathogens by stimulating an organisms immune system to either produce humoral antibodies against the pathogen (or toxins produced by the pathogen) or T cells that can provide cell-mediated immunity (Ghaffar and Haqqi, 2010). Though ancient scientists did mention about prevention of infectious diseases through immunisation, it was Edward Jenner who developed the first vaccine. The vaccine was developed against small pox in the year 1796. The next vaccine came up almost a century later by Louis Pasteur. The vaccine was anti-rabies vaccine and was first used in 1885. The development of anti-rabies vaccine kindled hope for prevention of other infectious diseases, leading to immense research and development of several other vaccines (Shah, Nitin and Kukrej, 2007). The term vaccination was coined by Edward Jenner. Vaccination is the method of causing immunity to a disease by administration of an antigenic material into the body. The term vaccination is used interchangeably with immunity, which is derived from the Greek word immune which means to be protected. Several vaccines have been developed which either prevent or ameliorate several infectious diseases. The first disease for which vaccine was developed is small pox. Infact, even before Edward Jenner developed a proper vaccine against small pox, people in India and China inoculated fluids taken from small pox vesicles of patients suffering from mild course of disease. Despite the marked usefulness of vaccination in the prevention of infectious diseases, vaccination is still a much debated topic and has several medical safety, ethical, political and religious implications. In this essay, vaccination, types of vaccines, implications of vaccination and novel vaccines will be discussed with reference to recent literature. Mechanism of action of vaccines Vaccines act by developing immunity to the particular disease by inducing the development of antibodies. There are basically 2 types of immunity, innate immunity and acquired immunity. Innate immunity develops after actual exposure to the disease organism. Acquired immunity develops after exposure to vaccination. Acquired immunity may be active or passive immunity. Active immunity is that immunity that develops following exposure to antigenic stimulus, while passive immunity develops after direct injection of antibodies in the form of either sera or immunoglobulins, inside the body. The type of immunity rendered by vaccination is active immunity. Passive immunity confers temporary protection. The antibodies are taken from individuals or animals who are already infected with the disease. Active immunity renders long term protection (Ghaffar and Haqqi, 2010). A pathogenic infectious agent induces disease and at the same time triggers the immune system of the host to develop antibodies against the disease. These antibodies help in the recovery of the host from the disease and continue to offer protection to subsequent infections from the same pathogen. This principle has been used for vaccination. Through vaccination, antigens which mimic the original pathogen of the respective disease are introduced into the body. The antigens only trigger the immune response, but do not cause the disease. The immune response may be cell-mediated or humoral, or even both, depending on which series of T helper lymphocytes are stimulated. Stimulation of Th1 series leads to lymphocytic response, while stimulation of Th2 series leads to humoral response. The timing of vaccine is based on several factors, the most important of which is the susceptibility of the disease, reactogenecity and presence of maternal antibodies. Thus, BCG and OPV vaccines are given at birth, because the child can get exposed to tuberculosis and polio at birth due to absence of maternal immunity and risk of susceptibility at this age. Similarly, vaccines against diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, hemophilus influenza are given in early childhood for maximum reactogenecity and protection against the diseases (Shah, 2007). Many vaccines are given together and this makes sense because concurrent administration of more than one vaccine does not interfere with the take of one another. It is important to give atleast 4 weeks time before the administration of second dose of the same vaccine (Shah, 2007). Types of vaccines The antigens in vaccines may be either live organisms, modified exotoxins, subunits of organisms or whole inactivated organisms. There are basically two types of vaccine: live vaccines and inactivated vaccines. In live vaccines, the pathogen, either virus or bacteria is weakened or attenuated. They act by causing non-clinical and self-limiting disease, thus triggering the immune system and inducing immunity. On administration, the pathogens multiply in the host and trigger immune response. The pathogens do not cause any disease because they are attenuated. However, in immunocompromised patients, live vaccines can cause disease. One major advantage with live vaccines is that a single dose is sufficient to confer long-term immunity. Examples of live vaccines are oral polio vaccine, measles vaccine, mumps vaccine and yellow fever vaccine (Ghaffar and Haqqi, 2010). Inactivated vaccines consist of either killed pathogens, subunits of pathogens or toxins released by pathogens. The killed vaccines are made up of pathogens which are grown in suitable culture, subsequent to which the pathogens, either bacteria or virus are killed either thermally or chemically with formaldehyde. More often than not, the polysaccharide immunogenic antigen is binded chemically with a protein molecule, to enhance the immunogenecity of the vaccine. Inactivated vaccines have to be given in multiple doses. The immunity is for a short period. Hence boosters doses are essential. Examples of inactivated virus vaccines are, hepatitis A vaccine, inactivated polio vaccine and rabies vaccine. Inactivated bacterial vaccines are whole cell killed typhoid vaccine and pertussis vaccine. Viral subunit vaccine is HBsAg vaccine. Toxoid vaccines are tetanus and diphtheria vaccines. Capsular polysaccharide vaccines are hemophilus influenza, typhoid Vi, pneumococcal and meningococcal vacc ines. In these vaccines, though the pathogens are destroyed and are not able to undergo replications, the capsid proteins, which are antigens are recognized by the immune system of the vaccinees, causing an immune response (Ghaffar and Haqqi, 2010). Bacterial subunit vaccine is acellular pertussis vaccine. Sub-unit vaccines are those which use purified components of the cell wall to initiate immune response in the vaccinee. Some of the examples of such vaccines are meningococcus, pertussis, hemophilus and pneumococcus vaccines. An interesting vaccine worth discussing at this juncture is the hepatitis-B vaccine which is developed by purification of the antigenic proteins that are manufactured subsequent to expression from a gene that is cloned into a vector like yeast (Ghaffar and Haqqi, 2010). Polysaccharide vaccines are basically weak antigens that are T-independent and hence cause IgM responses without development of immunologic memory that is critical for stable and long-term imm unity. In such vaccines, the immunogenecity is enhanced by conjugating the antigens with other proteins like meningococcus, hemophilus and pneumococcus that are T-dependent and induce immulogic memory (Ghaffar and Haqqi, 2010). The type of vaccination needed for a specific disease depends on the pathogenesis of the disease. For example, pathogens like diphtheria and tetanus cause the disease by releasing certain toxins called exotoxins. In these cases, antibodies which neutralise and prevent the binding of the exotoxin to respective receptors on the target cells prevent the disease. Thus vaccines against diphtheria and tetanus are toxoids. On the other hand, other pathogens have other pathogeneses, and consequently, antibodies which either react directly with the pathogen or eliminate the pathogen through either intracellular killing, complement mediated lysis or phagocytosis are essential. Pathogens like protozoa, viruses and intracellular bacteria which harbor inside the cells cannot be accessed by the antibodies and in such diseases, cells harboring the pathogens need to be destroyed (Ghaffar and Haqqi, 2010). Immunity conferred by a particular vaccine may be either lifelong or may last for few months. Examples of former type of vaccines are mumps, rubella, measles, tuberculosis, small pox and yellow fever. Cholera vaccine confers immunity only for few months and hence may be used only during outbreaks. Vaccines like diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, polio and hemophilus influenza are part of primary immunization and must be given between 2-3 months of age. Mumps, measles and rubella vaccines must be given between 13- 15 months (Shah et al, 2007). Adjuvants Adjuvants are those chemicals which are added in the vaccine to enhance the immunogenecity of the vaccines. The most widely used adjuvants are aluminum salts, which are used in DPT. Other adjuvants which are in experimental stage include Freuds complete and incomplete adjuvants, certain oligonucleotides and some synthetic polymers. Certain bacteria also act as adjuvants and examples are Nocardia and BCG. Adjuvants increase immunogenecity by recognizing TOLL-like receptors, leading to activation of mononuclear phagocytes and induction of certain cytokines which enhance Th1 and Th2 responses (Ghaffar and Haqqi, 2010). Prophylactic and therapeutic immunisation Most of the vaccines are given as a prophylactic measures against their respective diseases, in the sense, the vaccines are given prior to exposure to the disease pathogen. In case of rabies and tetanus, the vaccination is given after exposure to the pathogen and this is known as post-exposure immunization. In some situations like tetanus, which has very short incubation period, both active and passive immunisation may be necessary post-exposure (Shah, 2007). Strains used Only particular strains are used for the development of any vaccine. Danish 1331 and Copenhagen are the commonly used strains in the BCG vaccine. Both are strains of mycobacterium bovis. In each 0.1ml, 0.1- 0.4 million live viable bacilli are present. Each vial of OPV vaccine contains more than one million inactivated viruses 1,2 and 3. Measles vaccine is derived from live attenuated Edmonston Zagreb strain that is grown in the human diploid cell culture. MMR vaccine vaccine contains 1000 TCID50 of measles, 5000 TCID50 of mumps and 1000 TCID50 of rubella virus . There are several strains from which measles vaccine is developed and they are Edmonston Zagreb, Schwarz, Moraten and Edmonston B strains. The strains are grown in human diploid cell culture and live attenuated viruses are used to prepare the vaccine. Of these, Edmonston Zagreb strain is the most commonly used strain. The mumps strains used are Urabe AM9, Leningrad-Zagreb, RIT 4385 or Jerryl Lynn. The efficacy between various strains is similar. The strains are grown in chick embryo or human diploid cell cultures. For preparing the rubella vaccine, the strain used is RA 27/3 vaccine strain. The virus is grown in human diploid or chick embryo cell cultures. Live attenuated form of the virus is used for preparation of the vaccine (Shah, 2007). Market availability BCG vaccines are available in multi-dose dark colored ampoules. Single dose vaccine is not available. The vials are available as 10-dose vial and 20 dose vial. The 10 dose vial has to be reconstituted with 0.5 ml of normal saline and the 20 dose vial has to be reconstituted with 1ml sodium chloride solution (Shah, 2007). Storage Storage again, depends on the type of vaccine. Constituents of BCG vaccine are freeze-dried and can be stored at temperatures between 2-80 degree centigrade for one year. The preparation is vacuum sealed. Hence the ampoule must be opened carefully after gradual filing to avoid sudden entry of air and spillage of the contents. Reconstitution is done using normal saline. The vaccine has no preservative and thus the chances of bacterial contamination are high. Hence after reconstitution, the vaccine must be used within 4 hours and the left over vaccine must be discarded. Until those 4 hours, the vaccine has to be stored between 2- 8 degree centigrade. Oral polio vaccine contains stabilising agent magnesium sulphate and hence is stable after refrigeration. At state and district levels, the polio vaccine stocks must be stored at -200 degree centigrade. In clinics, it must be stored in the freezer. While transferring the vaccine to an outreach facility, the vaccine must be carried in prope r vaccine carriers loaded with ice packs to maintain temperature between 2- 80 degree centigrade. DPT vaccine has to be stored between 2-8 degree centigrade. The vaccine should never be frozen and any vial accidentally frozen must be discarded. Measles vaccine can either be frozen or stored in refrigerator compartment (Shah, 2007). Shelf life Shelf life varies from vaccine to vaccine. While some vaccines can be stored for several years, some others can be stored only for few months. For BCG, when stored under recommended temperatures in dark place, the shelf life is 24 months. Measles vaccine is supplied as freeze-dried and the shelf-life is 1-2 years or even more (Shah, 2007). Reconstitution While some vaccines like DPT and typhoid are ready-to-use vaccines, others like BCG, measles and hemophilus influenza vaccines are freeze dried need to be reconstituted with appropriate solutions. BCG vaccine has to be reconstituted with sodium chloride solution provided by the manufacturers. measles vaccine must be reconstituted with sterile water. The vaccine does not have any preservative and hence strict asepsis must be maintained while diluting and aspirating contents. Reconstituted vaccine must not be stored (Shah, 2007). Administration Site and mode of administration depends on the vaccine. For BCG, the vaccine can be given anywhere. However, the recommended site is the convex aspect of the left shoulder for the purpose of easy visualization of the scar. The most preferred site of injection is the site at which the deltoid inserts into the humerus. Injection at sites higher than this level on the arm are likely to develop keloid (CDC, 2009). Oral polio vaccine is administered orally. The principle behind oral vaccination is that high gut immunity levels prevent transmission of the wild or pathogenic polio viruses. DPT, Hemophilus influenza, inactivated polio , hepatitis A, hepatitis B, typhoid, and other such vaccine shave to be given intramuscularly and measles, mumps, rubella and varicella vaccines need to be given subcutaneously. The seroconversion rates of the oral polio vaccine are variable. For polio viruses type- 1, 2 and 3, the seroconversion rates after one dose of vaccine are 73%, 90% and 70%. Hence multiple doses are recommended to achive seroconversion of 90- 95 percent for all the 3 types of vaccine (Shah, 2007). Advantages of vaccination The advantages of vaccines are innumerous and hence all countries in the world have adopted vaccination in their public health policy. infact, vaccination is the best means of prevention of certain infectious disease, especially in new borns, infants and childrens who are vulnerable to certain diseases. In many cases, even if the vaccinee develops the disease for which he or she is vaccinated, the course of the disease is usally mild and recovery is fast. Attenuated vaccines trigger all phases of immune system and confer more stable immunity. Most live attenuated vaccines need no boosters. they are cheap and immunity develops quickly. The drugs are easy to transport. Some live vaccines like oral polio vaccine are easy to administer, can be given orally (Shah, 2007). Vaccines are useful not only to prevent disease, but also to eradicate the disease from the globe. Small pox, a deadly poxy disease was eradicated from the world only through vaccination. Currently, polio is on the verge of eradication because of oral polio vaccines and inactivated polio vaccine. However, there is ongoing debate about the continuing use of these vaccines with respect to community protection, as against individual protection. This debate arises in the wake of rising cases of paralytic poliomyelitis and vaccine derived polioviruses with oral polio vaccine (Thacker and Shendurnikar, 2003). Researchers are under the opinion that once poliovirus is eradicated, vaccine derived poliomyelitis will surge if oral polio vaccine administration is continued. To gaurd the development of this problem, inactivated polio vaccine which is administered in the form of injection is being introduced even in developing and underdeveloped countries (Shah, 2007). Bacillus Calmette Guerin vaccine or BCG vaccine is a vaccine against tuberculosis that was first developed in 1921 by Albert Calmette, a French microbiologist and Camille Guerin, a veterinary surgeon. Currently, BCG is the only vaccine against tuberculosis. The mechanism of immunity induced by this vaccine is cell-mediated immunity. The protective effect of this vaccine is not very good, especially for pulmonary tuberculosis ( Vaccines are a of immense economic value in the health care system and this is evident from the cost-benefit ratios (1:10) of poliomyelitis and measles (Mason et al, 2002). However, in developing and underdeveloped countries many people do not have the access to many vaccines due to lack of infrastructure, coordinated health policies and cost factor. Disadvantages of vaccination Vaccination is associated with many side effects. However the benefits of vaccination outweigh the disadvantages of vaccination. The safety of vaccines is always a disputed aspect, expecially by critics. However, vaccines are selected basically based on the necessity, safety and efficacy and they licensed only after undergoing 3 phases of trials. The first phase is on human volunteers for safety and tolerance aspects. The second trial tests immune response and safety in human volunteers and the third trial checks for field efficacy nd safety. After these trials, potency, purity and sterility tests are performed by both the manufacturer and the Drug controller of the country and only when these are satisfactory is the vaccine released into market. The efficacy of certain vaccines like BCG is doubted. While many studies have shown this vaccine to be efficacious, promoting its ised in Asian and African countries, the vaccine is not recommended for routine use in the United States because of the doubts casted on the benefits of the vaccine through some studies (CDC, 2009). Improper manufacturing of inactivated vaccines can result in infections due to intact pathogens. Booster doses are essential for inactivated vaccines because the antigens cannot reproduce and thus periodic reinforcement of immune response is mandatory (Ghaffar and Haqqi, 2010). Some previous studies published a causal relationship betwen measles-mumps-rubella vaccine and autism. However, the Institute of Medicine nd Immunisation Safety Review Committee (2004) investigated the relationship and rejected the causal relationship. Though vaccination against varicella is highly efficacious, many experts do not recommend the vaccine because naturally acquired immunity offers protection life long and prevents adult chicken more which is more severe than childhood chicken pox. Infact, some studies have shown that iniversant infant vaccination of chicken pox will cause a surge in chicken pox in adulthoos and during pregnancy. Based on these studies, experts are of the opinion that though chicken pox vaccination prevents economic loss due to loss of work time, health care costs may arise (Ferson, 1995). Some experts are of the opinion that the shift of surge in cases towards adulthood and oldage can be minimised by administering the vaccine in 2-3 doses, instead of single dose (Senterre, 2004). In some countries, a new combination vaccine consisting of vaccines against measles, mumps, rubella and varicella has been developed. While the argument as to whether universal vaccination against varicella continues, this co mbination vaccine is viewed from a critical point because of increased risk of febrile seizures. (Klein et al, 2010). Vaccine against Japanese Encephalitis, a zoonotic viral disease is widely used in countries in Asia. The vaccine is an inactivated vaccine developed from infected brain tissue of mouse. This vaccine is expensive and needs to be administered in 2-3 doses. Even booster dose is required for this vaccine. However the vaccine is associated with adverse reactions in significant number of people. In China and other regions like Korea, a cheap vaccine is used with strain SA 14- 14- 2. This vaccine is not associted with significant allergic reactions. Though the vaccine has been deemed effective, there are not many trials to support the safe and efficient use of this vaccine (Plesner, 2003). Some vaccines are very costly. For example, the vaccines against HPV virus, for the prevention of cervical cancer are around 100US dollars. The efficacy of the vaccine is 70 percent and hence screening for cervical cancer needs to be done even despite vaccination. The vaccine has to be given in 3 doses and many people cannot afford the price (Madrid-Madrina, 2009). Live attenuated vaccines are difficult to transport and have a risk of undergoing secondary mutation which can cause virulence. Also, these vaccines can cause disease in immunosuppressed persons, which makes them useless in those with immunocompromise. It is for these reasons that live oral polio virus vaccine, also known as the Sabin vaccine is being gradually replaced by inactivated polio vaccine or Salk vaccine. Almost all vaccines have some adverse effects. The most common adverse effect is soreness and redness at the site of injection. other adverse effects include fever, malaise, disconfort, allergic reaction or even neurological problems. The type of side effect depends on the vaccine. In BCG, adverse reaction in the form of papule and ulcer formation is an indication of successful vaccine administration. Soon after the vaccine is administered a wheal of atleast 5 mm develops which is an indication that the vaccine was administered in the most appropriate manner. After about 2-3 weeks, a small papule develops at the site of injection which gradually increases in size to about 4- 8mm by the end of 5-6 weeks. After about 6 weeks, the papule ruptures and an ulcer develops. This ulcer heals slowly and develops a scar after 6- 12 weeks. Other undesirable adverse reactions can occur in 1-10 percent cases. They are delayed healing of ulcer, lymphangitis, enlargement of ipsilateral cervical and axillary lymph nodes, abscess formation, osteomyelitis and rarely disseminated BCG vaccination. After DPT administration, side effects in noted in more than 40 percent of vaccinees. The most common adverse effect noted is pain and redness at the site of injection. The pain may be so severe that the child may not be able to move the limb and walk. Induration and swelling may also be present. Fever is also very common. It may last for 24- 72 hours and responds well to paracetamol. All children who have been administered this vaccine must receive paracetamol whether there is fever or not, for control of pain. Other systemic side effects include vomiting, anorexia, irritability, lassitude and excessive crying.The side effects are due to pertussis vaccine. Rarely, seizures can occur after administration of the vaccine. For vaccines like measles and varicella, rash and fever many occur (Shah, 2007). Some adverse effects can be nasty. For example, Swine flu vaccine is associated with Guillian barre syndrome, anaphylactic shock, vasculitis, paralysis and even death and this aspect is preventing many individuals from taking the vaccine.(Menzies et al, 2008). Pneumococcal vaccine can rarely can anaphylactic shock or even convulsions (Haber et al, 2009). Thus vaccination is associated with several risks and prior to administration of vaccines, the risks and benefits must be ascertained. Combination vaccines 2 ore more vaccines can be either given together at the same time. Currently, two or more vaccines are administered through the same injection. The combination depends on the vaccine and the manufacturers criteria. For several years, diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis were given as combination vaccine, known as DPT. Similarly measles, mumps and rubella are also available as combination vaccines. other recent combination vaccines include hepatitis A and B vaccines, DPT with hemophilus influenza and inactivated polio vaccine, etc. Combination vaccines are safe and reduce the number of injections that need to be given to the child. They do not decrease the efficacy of vaccination. They increase the compliance to vaccination (Shah, 2007). Novel vaccines Some novel vaccines have been developed and are under trial in the wake of debate between advantages and disadvantages of current vaccines available. Some of the important ones are DNA vaccines, immunodominant peptides and anti-idiotype molecules. of recent interest in the field of vaccination are plant-vaccines, which are erived from plants and can be administered orally or through oral mucosa (WHO, 2010). The vaccines derived thus are expected to be cheap with minimal side effects. research in plant vaccines is a result of revolution in proteomics and genomics, and greater understanding of the molecular basis of infectious diseases and advances in modern biotechnology. Edible plant vaccines employ a new strategy of combining plant biology with medical science. Research has shown that some variants of tobacco express hepatitis B surface antigen and streptomutans surface protein and infact the torch of research in plant-derived vaccines is taken from here. Novel vaccines have only su b-units of the pathogen and hence do not cause any virulence even in immunosuppressed patients. other than tobacco, other plants which are potential sources of vaccines are tomato, banana, alfalfa, legumes and certain cereals (Refer figure and tables below). Some research has pointed to the role of oral transgenic plant-derived vaccines in the prevention of diarrhoeal diseases by some pathogens like norovirus, enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli and cholera (Tacket, 2004). Plant-derived vaccines have several advantages. Besides lower cost of vaccination, another major advantages of the vaccines are that they are administered orally and hence the need for injection equipment is not needed. This decreases the risks associated with injections like unsafe injection, poor sterilization, misuse and reuse. The vaccines will need less rigorous formulations for manufacture and supply unlike injections. Another major advantage of plant-derived vaccines is heat stability which avoids the maintena nce of expensive cold-chains, and allows easy portability of the vaccine. Since most of the plant-derived vaccines are effective mucosally, it is an advantage because most infections are acquired through mucosa and mucosal immunity prevents entry of the pathogens into the host. Plant-derived vaccines can be given as combination vaccines. Plant derived vaccines can be given even for diseases not covered under regular vaccination like sexually transmitted diseases, dengue hookworm and HIV. The development of plant-derived vaccines is yet in cocoon stage due to return of investment doubts, uncertain licentures, limited human trials and lack of expertise (Arzten, 2002). Fig.1. Plant derived vaccine development strategy (Das, 2009). Table 1. Antigens produced in transgenic plants (Das, 2009) Protein Plant Hepatitis B surface antigen Rabies virus glycoprotein Norwalk virus capsid protein E.coliheat-labile enterotoxin B subunit Cholera toxin B subunit Mouse glutamate decarboxylase VP1 protein of foot and mouth disease virus Insulin Glycoprotein swine-transmissible gastroenteritis cornavirus Tobacco Tomato Tobacco Potato Potato, tobacco Potato Arabidopsis Potato Arabidopsis Table-2. Transient production of antigens in plants after infection with plant viruses expressing a recombinant gene (Das, 2009) Protein                                                             Plant                                   Carrier Influenza antigen                                             Tobacco                             TMV Murine zona pellucida antigen                        Tobacco                              TMV Rabies antigen                                               Spinach                              AFMV HIV-1 antigen                                                Tobacco                            AFMV Mink enteritis virus antigen                             Black eyed bean                 CPMV Colon cancer antigen                                      Tobacco                              TMV Table-3 Antibodies and antibody fragments produced in transgenic plants (Das, 2009) Antibody                                  Antigen                                              Plant IgG (k)                                     Transition stage analog                      Tobacco IgM (ÃŽÂ »)                                    NP(4-hydroxy-3-nitrophenyl)            Tobacco                                                 acetyl hapten Single domain (dAb)               Substance P                                        Tobacco Single chain Fv                       Phytochrome                                      Tobacco Single chain Fv                       Artichoke mottled virus                      Tobacco                                                 coat protein Fab; IgG (k)                            Human creatin kinase                          Arabidopsis IgG (k)                                    Fungal cutinase                                   Tobacco IgG (k) and SIgG/A                S. mutagens adhesin                           Tobacco hybrid Single chain Fv                       Abscisic acid                                        Tobacco Single chain Fv                       Nematode antigen                                Tobacco Single chain Fv                       Î ²-glucuronidase                                    Tobacco                                                Î ²-1,4 endoglucanase                             Single chain                            Atrazin, Paraquat                                  Tobacco antibody fragment   IgG                                         Glycoprotein B of                                  Soybean                                                 Herpes simplex virus                                     Conclusion
Wednesday, September 4, 2019
Preparation for Sunday Service
Preparation for Sunday Service Component 1: Written Assignment (1,500 words) List principal structural elements (the Ordo) of a main Sunday service such as you normally attend, stating briefly how you understand each element (or grouping of elements) contributes to the worship as a whole. Indicate, with self-awareness, how you would yourself want to approach leading such a service. Introduction: Context The service that will be discussed for this assignment was an 8.30am Eucharist Service using Order One from the Common Worship (CW) book and Eucharist Prayer E. On this particular Sunday, there were 21 members in the congregation including the Priest. There was a robed choir (4 members) and hymns were sung from Complete Anglican Hymns Old and New accompanied by an organ. The whole congregation sat in the choir stalls in the Chancel. Each member of the congregation followed the service in the CW book. This church is situated in a village approximately 12 miles from Cambridge city centre with a population of 1,015.[1] 56% of this population would refer to themselves a Christians. The largest age demographic in the parish is 16-65 years old.[2] Service Structure The structure of the service followed the liturgy as prescribed in CW with the particular collects and prayers for the third Sunday of Lent. 2.1 The Gathering The second greeting prayer A hymn was sung The prayer of preparation A seasonal invitation to confession Second confessional prayer Absolution Collect for the third Sunday of Lent 2.2 The Liturgy of the Word Old Testament passage read by the Church Warden New Testament passage read by a member of the congregation Hymn Congregation remain standing after the hymn for the Gospel Reading read by a member of the congregation Sermon The Creed congregation stand and face the alter Wedding Banns read by the Priest Prayers of intercession led by a member of the congregation 2.3 Liturgy of the Sacrament The Peace was shared with those around Hymn was sung during the preparation of the table. The collection was also taken at this point. Eucharist prayer E was then used with the extended preface From Ash Wednesday until the Saturday after the Fourth Sunday of Lent The whole of this prayer was said with people joining in the dialogue, Sanctus and Benedictus without needing to refer to the book. The Lords Prayer traditional version Breaking of the bread The first prayer before the distribution said Congregation go to the alter rail to receive communion hosts and one chalice of wine The second prayer after communion said 2.4 The Dismissal A hymn was sung Blessing for the third Sunday of Lent The dismissal Contribution to Worship The Gathering The Gathering to worship are important as they draw the congregation and president into relationship to a point to participate in the act of worshipping God.[3] The Prayers of Penitence came within the gathering I personally prefer it to come in this section as you are able to come and ask for forgiveness and worship God knowing that you are forgiven and then celebrating Gods goodness of forgiveness and grace. In this service, there could be an argument that the Prayers of Penitence could come after the Bible readings and sermon. The lectionary reading was about the woman at the well and if your sermon was a focus on forgiveness then the Prayers of Penitence could act as a response to the message received. The collect is a prayer that links with the Sunday and not with the scripture readings. This can add to the worship in a way that allows the congregation to focus on the season which God is currently working through. It should also be a way of getting the congregation to contemplate how the season affects their spirituality. With the collects, main aim to gather all of the prayers in the Gathering section into one and drawing ourselves closer to God and one another.[4] The Liturgy of the Word The next two sections of the worship service, the Liturgy of the Word and the Liturgy of the Sacrament, need to be balance carefully because they both hold significant value of equal weighting. A key element of this section of the worship service is hearing the Word of God through scripture. My personal view is that we need to remember that worship is a two-way communication us with God but also God with us. By following the lectionary we get a journey through scripture. The sermon element of the Liturgy of the Word can take many different forms but ultimately should be an opportunity for the congregation to engage with Scripture as an individual and allow God to speak into their lives through it.[5] The creed and prayers of intercession are an opportunity for the congregation to respond to the Word of God through prayer. The act of worship in the time of prayer is an opportunity to give thanks and praise to God for what we have heard but also should be an opportunity to allow the Word to speak into the needs of the community by lifting them before God.[6] The Liturgy of the Sacrament In the Liturgy of the Word Christ is heard; where as in the Liturgy of the Sacrament the elements are not only seen and touched but smelt and tasted.[7] This act of worship is multisensory and can allow the congregant to worship God through more than just sight and sound. Prayer E is a simple narrative style which is like that of Prayer D. The images used in the prayer are more vivid and concrete than those used in other prayers. This set of prayers also allows for extended prefaces for the various seasons. The language used through the institution narrative and the extended prefaces allows for worship to take on a visual element using imagination. The worship of receiving the bread and wine should encourage the congregant that through the Holy Spirits power there is a strengthening.[8] The Dismissal The blessing and the dismissal at the end of the service concludes the act of worship but should encourage the congregation to continue to worship God when leaving the church building. By the Priest saying Go in peaceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ is about the act of carrying the presence of God out of church and into the world. In the same way that we have been reconciled with God through our act of worship in church we should be helping the world to reconcile with God and with each other through living in peace with one another.[9] Reflections The flow of the service was good and allowed people to engage with the various elements. The church was warm and welcoming which does allow people to feel comfortable within the act of worship. The questions that I was left with about the service were: Does the congregation understand what it meant for the Third Sunday of Lent and how this structured the worship? And in turn how did this help, or not help, them to worship? How much of the liturgy is just read but without a conscience response? How do we engage our congregations to be active worshipers and not passively getting through to the end? I thought that the intercessory prayers, which were led by a member of the congregation, were very well structured. They linked the Bible passage of the woman at the well, the sermon, and the needs of the community and world together. They were led in a way that felt very much that they were being prayed with the congregation instead of just being prayed to the congregation who are merely observers in the act of prayer. I asked the Vicar if there had been any training on the writing and delivery of the prayers for those who do them he said that there had been a short teaching session one evening on writing the prayers. Conclusion: How would I lead? Overall I felt that the service was well structured with a good mix of lay participation which I feel is an important aspect to worship as it allows all the congregation to participate and does not segregate the Priest making a them and us feel to the community. The significant adaptation I would make to the service would be the use of silence. I felt that there was not enough time to reflect upon the various elements of worship before moving onto the next part. The specific areas that I would include longer elements of silence would be: After each of the Bible readings. The first two readings went one straight after the other but it would have been good to have encouraged people to spend a minute contemplating the reading. After the sermon. For a similar reason for keeping silence after the Bible readings. Having time to reflect on what the sermon was about and how you might want to act upon it in the week ahead. After the congregation have received communion. The organist played an appropriate piece of music while people were receiving and allowed people time to reflect during this time. I felt that once the music had finished and before the post communion prayer a time of silence would have been beneficial. Word count: 1537 Bibliography Beach, Mark, Holy Communion (London: Church House Pub., 2000) Census Maps | Cambridgeshire Insight, Cambridgeshireinsight.Org.Uk, 2017 [accessed 19 March 2017] Common Worship, 1st edn (London: Church House Pub., 2000) Complete Anglican Hymns Old New (Stowmarket, Suffolk: Kevin Mayhew, 2000) Davison, Andrew, Why Sacraments?, 1st edn (London: SPCK, 2013) De Lange, Anna, How To Engage With Scripture (Cambridge, U.K.: Grove Books, 2011) Go In Peace To Love And Serve The Lord Meaning, Lords-Prayer-Words.Com, 2017 [accessed 20 March 2017] Parish Spotlight, 2017 [accessed 19 March 2017] [1] Census Maps | Cambridgeshire Insight, Cambridgeshireinsight.Org.Uk, 2017 [2] Parish Spotlight, 2017 [3] Mark Beach, Holy Communion, p.36 [4] Mark Beach, Holy Communion, p.41 [5] Anna De Lange, How To Engage With Scripture, p.5 [6] Mark Beach, Holy Communion, p.55 [7] Andrew Davison, Why Sacraments?, p.45 [8] Andrew Davidson, Why Sacraments?, p.44 [9] Go In Peace To Love And Serve The Lord Meaning, 2017
Tuesday, September 3, 2019
e-books Essay -- Library Science, Myilibrary, Netlibrary
The library and information centres have undertaken collection management of printed books and now challenges in developing collection of electronic resources (e-resources) are waiting. Electronic books (e-books) consist of printed books being digitized or born digitally, the starting rise of new electronic formats. The increase number of e-books especially in UK also brings challenges to the publishers and aggregators, the importance in managing and promoting â€Å"e-books as the new electronic medium†(Armstrong and Lonsdale 2005). This essay will look at issues being addressed surrounding the management and promoting the e-books. One of the issues to be addressed in managing e-books is the selection and acquisition e-books. Librarians especially the academic librarians need to concern on selecting and acquisition new e-books, e-textbooks and titles associated to the students’ fields and demands. The librarians should train in considering the demands of e-books for distance learning, placements students and selecting printed books as back up to e-books’ (Armstrong and Lonsdale 2009). Acquiring the e-books from publishers and aggregators become issues in managing the e-books. The pricing and business model through subscription provides easy methods and ‘aggregators would be more attractive option than through publishers’ (Armstrong, Edwards and Lonsdale 2002). For the writer, e-book aggregators such as NetLibrary and Credo Reference give more advance access and tools for library, user of groups, relevance information and formats of e-book availability in pdf or web. However, subscript ions of e-books can be difficult. Libraries want to have ‘fewer complexes models and fair pricing structures’ (Ball 2009) and Edwards (2001) summari... ...ons. It is recommended stakeholders and JISC e-BOOK Working Group (Armstrong and Lonsdale 2005) are working together for effectively promoting strategies for e-books to all libraries. The e-book collections are no longer close entities but open widely to users. The libraries especially the academic libraries should concern on selecting e-books references for students and researchers. Issues concerned including the consideration giving effective ways on access and promotion need to be accounted. However, ‘Usage and licensing conditions vary widely and are not always library-friendly’ (Ball 2009). Licensing and bibliographical access still the crucial challenges for collection managements especially in relates to cost and legal legislate deposits. All the issues discussed above come up with literatures and approaches to issues of managing e-book collections.
Deist Pantheism in Tintern Abbey :: William Wordsworth Poetry
"Tintern Abbey" typifies William Wordsworth's desire to demonstrate what he sees as the oneness of the human psyche with that of the universal mind of the cosmos. It is his pantheistic attempt to unfurl the essence of nature's sublime mystery that often evades understanding, marking his progression as a young writer firmly rooted within the revolutionary tradition to one caught in perplexity about which way to proceed socially and morally, and further, to define for himself a new personal socio-political vision. Moreover, "Tintern Abbey" exhibits Wordsworth's eclipsing of the Cartesian belief in a supernatural creator who stands beyond the universe, echoing the ideas of Burach Spinoza, and redefining late eighteenth century deism into a more personal, pantheist revision of nature. The poem's portrayal of the intimate connection with nature implicitly underscores Wordsworth's view on conventional religious belief as one surpassing commonly held interpretations of the supernatural. It conveys Wordsworth's ideal of the universe as bound inextricably within the essence of all that is harmonious and natural -- a "Oneness." It sympathetically depicts the inseparability of "God" from nature, the "material-spirit" of energy that, as Wordsworth portrays it, imbues the life force with . . . a sense sublime Of something far more deeply interfused, Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns, And the round ocean and the living air, And the blue sky, and in the mind of man; A motion and a spirit, that impels All thinking things, all objects of all thought, And rolls through all things. (96-103) In terms of "Tintern Abbey"'s naturalistic depiction of nature's interconnection with the universe and humanity, the poem reveals Samuel Taylor Coleridge and John Thelwall's implicit influence upon Wordsworth's development as both a writer and naturalist poet. Similar to Wordsworth, for instance, John Thelwall illuminates the organic spur of the human frame and other life forms in his scientific prose, such as found in his celebrated medical essay, Towards A Definition of Animal Vitality (1793). Thelwall's "cosmic-monism" fuses the workings of the human body to the movements of heaven and earth -- a holistic interconnection of the organic to the inorganic. His connection to Wordsworth through Coleridge serves to partially explain the inherent pantheistic vision in "Tintern Abbey"'s 1798 composition.
Monday, September 2, 2019
Jose Rizal’s Family
Jose Rizal's parents, Francisco Mercado Rizal y Alejandro (1818–1898)[8] and Teodora Alonzo y Quintos(1826–1911),[8] were prosperous farmers who were granted lease of a hacienda and an accompanying rice farm by the Dominicans. Rizal was the seventh child of their eleven children namely: Saturnina (1850–1913), Paciano (1851–1930), Narcisa (1852–1939), Olympia (1855–1887), Lucia (1857–1919), Maria (1859–1945), Jose Protasio (1861–1896), Concepcion (1862–1865), Josefa (1865–1945), Trinidad (1868–1951) and Soledad (1870–1929). Rizal was a 9th-generation patrilineal descendant of Domingo Lam-co (Chinese: pinyin: Ke Yinan), a Chinese immigrant entrepreneur who sailed to the Philippines from Jinjiang, Quanzhou in the mid-17th century. [9] Lam-co married Inez de la Rosa, a Sangley native of Luzon. To free his descendants from the Sinophobic animosity of the Spanish authorities, Lam-co changed the surn ame to the Spanish â€Å"Mercado†(market) to indicate their Chinese merchant roots. In 1849, Governor-General Narciso Claveria ordered all native families in the Philippines to choose new surnames from a list of Spanish family names. Jose's father Francisco[8] adopted the surname â€Å"Rizal†(originally Ricial, the green of young growth or green fields), which was suggested to him by a provincial governor, or as Jose had described him, â€Å"a friend of the family†. However, the name change caused confusion in the business affairs of Francisco, most of which were begun under the old name. After a few years, he settled on the name â€Å"Rizal Mercado†as a compromise, but usually just used the original surname â€Å"Mercado†. Upon enrolling at the Ateneo Municipal de Manila, Jose dropped the last three names that make up his full name, at the advice of his brother, Paciano Rizal Mercado, and the Rizal Mercado family, thus rendering his name as â€Å"Jose Protasio Rizal†. Of this, Rizal writes: â€Å"My family never paid much attention [to our second surname Rizal], but now I had to use it, thus giving me the appearance of an illegitimate child! â€Å"[10] This was to enable him to travel freely and disassociate him from his brother, who had gained notoriety with his earlier links with native priests who were sentenced to death as subversives. From early childhood, Jose and Paciano were already advancing unheard-of political ideas of freedom and individual rights which infuriated the authorities. [11][12] Despite the name change, Jose, as â€Å"Rizal†soon distinguishes himself in poetry writing contests, impressing his professors with his facility with Castilian and other foreign languages, and later, in writing essays that are critical of the Spanish historical accounts of the pre-colonial Philippine societies. Indeed, by 1891, the year he finished his sunset, this second surname had become so well known that, as he writes to another friend, â€Å"All my family now carry the name Rizal instead of Mercado because the name Rizal means persecution! Good! I too want to join them and be worthy of this family name†¦ â€Å"[10] Jose became the focal point by which the family became known, at least from the point of view of colonial authorities.
Sunday, September 1, 2019
Is the Game Theory, the Right Game Essay
Yes, indeed the game theory is the right game. Business is not about winning and losing nor is it about how well you play the game. The essence of business success lies in making sure you’re playing the right game. The challenge for us is to make sure we’re playing the right game. There are times in our life that we think we are in the right game but suddenly we realize that it is not the game we should play. For example, the course that you choose in college, you enrolled in accounting because your parents said so or because you don’t have any choice yet but you don’t possess the passion, attitude and skills an accountant must have. That is an evidence that you are in the wrong course, the remedy is to change your course into the course you love and possess the skills and passion for. To every action, there is a reaction. You have to look forward into the game and then reason backward to figure out which of today’s actions will lead you to where you want to end up. In order to succeed we need to go beyond the threats and opportunities that might occur and what we what to become in the future but we need also to be realistic and not too imaginary. Thus, after looking forward we make the action that will lead us to where we what to be. The decisions and actions you make today will affect our future career. So make the right actions and decisions. You cannot take away from the game more than you bring to it. You cannot take away more than your added value. Don’t remove something that contribute to your strengths, keep and maintain them. The main focus is allocentrism. It is the importance of focusing on others. You have to put yourself in the shoes and even in the heads of other players. You have to ask not what other players can bring to you but what you can bring to other players. It’s changing our mind-set into other players mind-set because if you know what and how they think it’s easy for you to discern what they need and what to the betterment of the company. Successful business strategy is about actively shaping the game you play, not just playing the game you find. It’s true that we should actively shape the game we play. It means that finding a continuous improvement and not just be stagnant in where you are now. We should find a way to increase and improve to the next level as years pass by. Understanding other players can help find new strategies for changing the game or new applications of existing strategies. In changing the game we should understand the players, added value, rules, tactics and scope. There is nothing permanent in this world we should actively change into better. The world is constantly changing and we need to adapt to it for us not to be left behind. In conclusion I agree that we should be a game maker than a game taker. We should have a coopetition mind-set and to be an allocentric. I believe that in business and even in our own lives there is no end to the game of changing the game. It is always an on going process that we should adapt and be flexible to it. We should be alert and wise to make decisions and actions because our decisions and actions today will change and have an effect to our future career.
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